משתמש:בנצי/ארגז חול ??: מספר קוונטי

מספרים קוונטיים מתארים ערכים של גדלים משתמרים במהלך הדינמיקה או ההתפתחות של מערכת קוונטית. ההיבט התמוה ביותר, אולי, במכניקת קוונטים היא הקוונטיזציה של גדלים נצפים, מאחר ומספרים קוונטיים מערכים בדידים של מספרים שלמים או חצאי שלמים. דבר זה שונה ממכניקה קלאסית בה תחום הערכים האפשריים הינו רציף. מספרים קוונטיים מגדירים, לעיתים קרובות, את האנרגיות של האלקטרונים באטום, אבל גם את התנע הזוויתי, את הספין שלהם וכו'. כל מערכת קוונטית יכולה לקבל מספר קוונטי אחד או יותר; כך שקשה לערוך רשימה של כל המספרים הקוונטיים האפשריים. Quantum numbers describe values of conserved quantities in the dynamics of the quantum system. Perhaps the most peculiar aspect of quantum mechanics is the quantization of observable quantities, since quantum numbers are discrete sets of integers or half-integers. This is distinguished from classical mechanics where the values can range continuously. Quantum numbers often describe specifically the energies of electrons in atoms, but other possibilities include angular momentum, spin, etc. Any quantum system can have one or more quantum numbers; it is thus difficult to list all possible quantum numbers.

How many quantum numbers?

The question of how many quantum numbers are needed to describe any given system has no universal answer, hence for each system, one must find the answer for a full analysis of the system. A quantized system requires at least one quantum number. The dynamics of any quantum system are described by a quantum Hamiltonian, H. There is one quantum number of the system corresponding to the energy, i.e., the eigenvalue of the Hamiltonian. There is also one quantum number for each operator O that commutes with the Hamiltonian (i.e. satisfies the relation HO = OH). These are all the quantum numbers that the system can have. Note that the operators O defining the quantum numbers should be independent of each other. Often, there is more than one way to choose a set of independent operators. Consequently, in different situations different sets of quantum numbers may be used for the description of the same system.

Spatial and angular momentum numbers

To completely describe an electron in an atom, four quantum numbers are needed: energy, angular momentum, magnetic moment and spin.

Traditional nomenclatures

Many different models have been proposed throughout the history of quantum mechanics, but the most prominent system of nomenclature spawned from the Hund-Mulliken molecular orbital theory of Friedrich Hund, Robert S. Mulliken, and contributions from Schrödinger, Slater and John Lennard-Jones. This system of nomenclature incorporated Bohr energy levels, Hund-Mulliken orbital theory, and observations on electron spin based on spectroscopy and Hund's rules.

This model describes electrons using four quantum numbers, n, תבנית:Ell, m_{תבנית:Ell}, m_s, given below. It is also the common nomenclature in the classical description of nuclear particle states (e.g. protons and neutrons). Molecular orbitals require different quantum numbers, because the Hamiltonian and its symmetries are quite different.

1. The principal quantum number: n
   The first describes the electron shell, or energy level, of an atom. The value of n ranges from 1 to the shell containing the outermost electron of that atom, i.e.

   n = 1, 2, ... .

   For example, in caesium (Cs), the outermost valence electron is in the shell with energy level 6, so an electron in caesium can have an n value from 1 to 6. For particles in a time-independent potential (see Schrödinger equation), it also labels the nth eigenvalue of Hamiltonian (H), i.e. the energy, E with the contribution due to angular momentum (the term involving J²) left out. This number therefore has a dependence only on the distance between the electron and the nucleus (i.e., the radial coordinate, r). The average distance increases with n, and hence quantum states with different principal quantum numbers are said to belong to different shells.
2. The azimuthal quantum number: תבנית:Ell
   The second (also known as the angular quantum number or orbital quantum number) describes the subshell, and gives the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum through the relation

   L² = ħ² תבנית:Ell (תבנית:Ell + 1).

   In chemistry and spectroscopy, "תבנית:Ell = 0" is called an s orbital, "תבנית:Ell = 1" a p orbital, "תבנית:Ell = 2" a d orbital, and "תבנית:Ell = 3" an f orbital. The value of תבנית:Ell ranges from 0 to n − 1, because the first p orbital (תבנית:Ell = 1) appears in the second electron shell (n = 2), the first d orbital (תבנית:Ell = 2) appears in the third shell (n = 3), and so on:

   תבנית:Ell = 0, 1, 2,..., n − 1.

   A quantum number beginning in 3, 0, … describes an electron in the s orbital of the third electron shell of an atom. In chemistry, this quantum number is very important, since it specifies the shape of an atomic orbital and strongly influences chemical bonds and bond angles.
3. The magnetic quantum number: m_{תבנית:Ell}
   The third describes the specific orbital (or "cloud") within that subshell, and yields the projection of the orbital angular momentum along a specified axis:

   L_z = m_{תבנית:Ell} ħ.

   The values of m_{תבנית:Ell} range from −תבנית:Ell to תבנית:Ell, with integer steps between them: The s subshell (תבנית:Ell = 0) contains only one orbital, and therefore the m_{תבנית:Ell} of an electron in an s subshell will always be 0. The p subshell (תבנית:Ell = 1) contains three orbitals (in some systems, depicted as three "dumbbell-shaped" clouds), so the m_{תבנית:Ell} of an electron in a p subshell will be −1, 0, or 1. The d subshell (תבנית:Ell = 2) contains five orbitals, with m_{תבנית:Ell} values of −2, −1, 0, 1, and 2.
4. The spin projection quantum number: m_s
   The fourth describes the spin (intrinsic angular momentum) of the electron within that orbital, and gives the projection of the spin angular momentum S along the specified axis:

   S_z = m_s ħ.

   Analogously, the values of m_s range from −s to s, where s is the spin quantum number, an intrinsic property of particles:

   m_s = −s, −s + 1, −s + 2,...,s − 2, s − 1, s.

   An electron has spin s = ½, consequently m_s will be ±½, corresponding with "spin" and "opposite spin." Each electron in any individual orbital must have different spins because of the Pauli exclusion principle, therefore an orbital never contains more than two electrons.

Note that, since atoms and electrons are in a state of constant motion, there is no universal fixed value for m_{תבנית:Ell} and m_s values. Therefore, the m_{תבנית:Ell} and m_s values are defined somewhat arbitrarily. The only requirement is that the naming schematic used within a particular set of calculations or descriptions must be consistent (e.g. the orbital occupied by the first electron in a p subshell could be described as m_{תבנית:Ell} = −1 or m_{תבנית:Ell} = 0, or m_{תבנית:Ell} = 1, but the m_{תבנית:Ell} value of the other electron in that orbital must be the same, and the m_{תבנית:Ell} assigned to electrons in other orbitals must be different).

These rules are summarized as follows:

Name	Symbol	Orbital meaning	Range of values	Value examples
principal quantum number	n	shell	1 ≤ n	n = 1, 2, 3, …
azimuthal quantum number (angular momentum)	תבנית:Ell	subshell (s orbital is listed as 0, p orbital as 1 etc.)	0 ≤ תבנית:Ell ≤ n − 1	for n = 3: תבנית:Ell = 0, 1, 2 (s, p, d)
magnetic quantum number, (projection of angular momentum)	mתבנית:Ell	energy shift (orientation of the subshell's shape)	−תבנית:Ell ≤ mתבנית:Ell ≤ תבנית:Ell	for תבנית:Ell = 2: mתבנית:Ell = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
spin projection quantum number	ms	spin of the electron (−½ = "spin down", ½ = "spin up")	−s ≤ ms ≤ s	for an electron s = ½, so ms = −½, ½

Example: The quantum numbers used to refer to the outermost valence electrons of the Carbon (C) atom, which are located in the 2p atomic orbital, are; n = 2 (2nd electron shell), תבנית:Ell = 1 (p orbital subshell), m_{תבנית:Ell} = 1, 0 or −1, m_s = ½ (parallel spins).

Results from spectroscopy indicated that up to two electrons can occupy a single orbital. However two electrons can never have the same exact quantum state nor the same set of quantum numbers according to Hund's Rules, which addresses the Pauli exclusion principle. A fourth quantum number with two possible values was added as an ad hoc assumption to resolve the conflict; this supposition could later be explained in detail by relativistic quantum mechanics and from the results of the renowned Stern-Gerlach experiment.

Total angular momenta numbers

Total momentum of a particle

תבנית:Details תבנית:See also When one takes the spin-orbit interaction into consideration, the L and S operators no longer commute with the Hamiltonian, and their eigenvalues therefore change over time. Thus another set of quantum numbers should be used. This set includes

1. The total angular momentum quantum number:

   j = |תבנית:Ell ± s|

   which gives the total angular momentum through the relation

   J² = ħ² j (j + 1).

2. The projection of the total angular momentum along a specified axis:

   m_j = −j, −j + 1, −j + 2,...,j − 2, j − 1, j

   analogous to the above, and satisfies

   m_j = m_{תבנית:Ell} + m_s and |m_{תבנית:Ell} + m_s| < j.

3. Parity This is the eigenvalue under reflection, and is positive (+1) for states which came from even תבנית:Ell and negative (−1) for states which came from odd תבנית:Ell. The former is also known as even parity and the latter as odd parity, and is given by

   P = (−1)^{תבנית:Ell}.

For example, consider the following eight states, defined by their quantum numbers:

	n	תבנית:Ell	mתבנית:Ell	ms		תבנית:Ell + s	תבנית:Ell - s	ml + ms
#1.	2	1	1	+1/2		3/2	1/2	3/2
#2.	2	1	1	-1/2		3/2	1/2	1/2
#3.	2	1	0	+1/2		3/2	1/2	1/2
#4.	2	1	0	-1/2		3/2	1/2	-1/2
#5.	2	1	-1	+1/2		3/2	1/2	-1/2
#6.	2	1	-1	-1/2		3/2	1/2	-3/2
#7.	2	0	0	+1/2		1/2	-1/2	1/2
#8.	2	0	0	-1/2		1/2	-1/2	-1/2

The quantum states in the system can be described as linear combination of these eight states. However, in the presence of spin-orbit interaction, if one wants to describe the same system by eight states which are eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian (i.e. each represents a state which does not mix with others over time), we should consider the following eight states:

j = 3/2,	mj =	3/2,	odd parity	(coming from state (1) above)
j = 3/2,	mj =	1/2,	odd parity	(coming from states (2) and (3) above)
j = 3/2,	mj =	-1/2,	odd parity	(coming from states (4) and (5) above)
j = 3/2,	mj =	-3/2,	odd parity	(coming from state (6) above)
j = 1/2,	mj =	1/2,	odd parity	(coming from states (2) and (3) above)
j = 1/2,	mj =	-1/2,	odd parity	(coming from states (4) and (5) above)
j = 1/2,	mj =	1/2,	even parity	(coming from state (7) above)
j = 1/2,	mj =	-1/2,	even parity	(coming from state (8) above)

Nuclear angular momentum quantum numbers

In nuclei, the entire assembly of protons and neutrons (nucleons) has a resultant angular momentum due to the angular momenta of each nucleon, usually denoted I. If the total angular momentum of a neutron is j_n = תבנית:Ell + s and for a proton is j_p = תבנית:Ell + s (where s for protons and neutrons happens to be ½ again) then the nuclear angular momentum quantum numbers I are given by:

I = |j_n − j_p|, |j_n − j_p| + 1, |j_n − j_p| + 2,..., |j_n − j_p| − 2, |j_n − j_p| − 1, |j_n − j_p|

Parity with the number I is used to label nuclear angular momentum states, examples for some isotopes of Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C), and Sodium (Na) are;

H11	I = (1/2)+		C69	I = (3/2)−		Na1120	I = 2+
H12	I = 1+		C610	I = 0+		Na1121	I = (3/2)+
H13	I = (1/2)+		C611	I = (3/2)−		Na1122	I = 3+
			C612	I = 0+		Na1123	I = (3/2)+
			C613	I = (1/2)−		Na1124	I = 4+
			C614	I = 0+		Na1125	I = (5/2)+
			C615	I = (1/2)+		Na1126	I = 3+

The reason for the unusual fluctuations in I, even by differences of just one nucleon, are due to the odd/even numbers of protons and neutrons - pairs of nucleons have a total angular momentum of zero (just like electrons in orbitals), leaving an odd/even numbers of unpaired nucleons. The property of nuclear spin is an important factor for the operation of NMR spectroscopy in organic chemistry, and MRI in nuclear medicine, due to the nuclear magnetic moment interacting with an external magnetic field.

Elementary particles

Elementary particles contain many quantum numbers which are usually said to be intrinsic to them. However, it should be understood that the elementary particles are quantum states of the standard model of particle physics, and hence the quantum numbers of these particles bear the same relation to the Hamiltonian of this model as the quantum numbers of the Bohr atom does to its Hamiltonian. In other words, each quantum number denotes a symmetry of the problem. It is more useful in quantum field theory to distinguish between spacetime and internal symmetries.

Typical quantum numbers related to spacetime symmetries are spin (related to rotational symmetry), the parity, C-parity and T-parity (related to the Poincaré symmetry of spacetime). Typical internal symmetries are lepton number and baryon number or the electric charge. (For a full list of quantum numbers of this kind see the article on flavour.)

A minor but often confusing point is as follows: most conserved quantum numbers are additive, so in an elementary particle reaction, the sum of the quantum numbers should be the same before and after the reaction. However, some, usually called a parity, are multiplicative; i.e., their product is conserved. All multiplicative quantum numbers belong to a symmetry (like parity) in which applying the symmetry transformation twice is equivalent to doing nothing. These are all examples of an abstract group called Z₂.

See also

• Electron configuration

References and external links

General principles

• Dirac, Paul A.M. (1982). Principles of quantum mechanics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-852011-5.

Atomic physics

• Quantum numbers for the hydrogen atom

Particle physics

• Griffiths, David J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
• Halzen, Francis and Martin, Alan D. (1984). QUARKS AND LEPTONS: An Introductory Course in Modern Particle Physics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-88741-2.{{cite book}}: תחזוקה - ציטוט: multiple names: authors list (link)
• The particle data group
• Lecture notes on quantum numbers

• קטגוריה:Quantum mechanics
• קטגוריה:Quantum measurement
• קטגוריה:Concepts in physics